List of European medieval musical instruments
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This is a list of medieval musical instruments used in European music during the Medieval period. It covers the period from before 1150 to 1400 A.D. There may be some overlap with Renaissance musical instruments; Renaissance music begins in the 15th century. The list mainly covers Western Europe. It may branch into Eastern Europe but won't focus on that region.
Percussion
[edit]| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions | Pictures | Pictures |
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| Adufe[1] | A frame drum brought to Iberia by Muslims and played mainly by women.[3] Used in the charamba in Portugal, a circle dance for couples.[3]
The adufe is a square or rectangular frame drum usually made of pine, over which is mounted a goat's skin. The size of the frame usually ranges from 12 to 22 inches on each side, and 1 to 2 inches thick. The skin is stitched on the sides, with the stitches covered by a coloured ribbon. In the interior small seeds, stones or bells are placed to make pleasing sounds. Illustrated examples are decorated, possibly with henna.[4] |
Iberia Portugal Spain |
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| Bells
handbells Chimes |
Small cast bells in "Mediterranean tradition" were used by Christians during the first four centuries A.D.[5] In the 5th century Irish Christians began making forged bells (cowbells).[5] In 530 A.D., the Benedictine Order began to engineer large cast churchbells and set up foundries to make them, supplying them throughout western Europe.[5] Eastern Europe got bells from Constantinople.[5] Cherson in Crimea also made bells.[5]
Racks of hammer struck bells are called chimes.[6] Chimes from cymbalum (Latin).[6] In Middle Ages (10th-16th centuries) was for indoor instrument made up of 4-12 small bells, hung from a bar and struck with hammers.[6] Beginning 12th century, may have had "large wooden key installed" to make playing easier and to help play bigger bells.[6] In areas where Christians and Muslims shared space, such as Anatolia and the Iberian Peninsula, bells competed with Muezzins calling the Islamic faithful to prayers.[7] In Anatolia, bells were replaced by beams of wood (struck as bells). In Andalusia/Spain, Christians used bells to drown out the Islamic sounds, and Muslims tried to silence the bells by taking them in war.[7] |
Latin, western tradition from church
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| Bumbulum (legendary)
Bunibulum (legendary) |
Some medieval scribes theorized about music from the past, or used musical instruments to illustrate doctrinal points. They copied in manuscript a letter from St. Jerome (342-420 A.D.) to Claudius Postumus Dardanus. In it, Jerome tried to explain pagan and Christian musical instruments that are mentioned in the Bible and their allegorical meanings.[10] The letter was reproduced in Christian manuscripts. Starting about 850, scribes began to illustrate the letter in manuscripts, from descriptions of the musical instruments in the letter.[11] Some are allegorical and wouldn't work, such as a horn with three mouthpieces for each of the Holy Trinity to blow through; however in an allegory the Trinity would be expressed by speaking through the four outlets, symbolizing the Four Evangelists.
- The bumbulum was played by shaking it. It had hanging bells or jingles, suspended from a centerpiece, itself suspended from overhead. It was described as a carpenter's square (signifiying the Holy Cross) with a "four cornered object" hanging from it (signifying Christ on the Cross), with 12 pipes hanging from the object's sides (to jingle and to signify the 12 Apostles).[12] |
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| Clappers
cliquettes |
Clappers from the Carolingian Empire appear to have been disks or possibly chimes attached to sticks. Other versions were blocks of wood held in the palms. The palm-held blocks could make clicking and rattle noises like castanets. Other similar instruments worldwide include the Thai/Cambodian krap sepha, Indian/Nepali khartal, Uzbek/Tajik qairaq, or North African krakebs. |   |
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| Cymbals |  |
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| *Frame drum | ||||
| Jew's harp[13] | .jpg) |
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| Nakers |  |
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Rattle
Vessel rattle
Frame rattle (see tambourine) Row or rod rattles |
Rattles in the medieval period included vessel wrattles (crotals) and rod rattles and frame rattles. See also adulfe, clappers or cliquettes, tambourine, triangle
Crotals, also known as jingle bells, were two hemispherical, slotted sheets of metal soldered together, bulging where they connected the sheets into a ball. There was a pellet inside the ball. Historical uses included use by nobility on clothing, armor, tents and knights' horses and dogs, use by ladies for dancing (such as girls wearing bells ""à la morisque" around their hips, arms and ankles" for the reception of Charles V in Spain), and use by the fool as part of his garb (the fool's cap).[14][15] Row or rod rattles; rattles strung on a straight or ring-shaped rod. Medieval triangles are illustrated with rattles in this manner. |
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| Cog rattle
Clatter
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Has been used among Catholic Christians in religious ceremonies to replace bells. Among Catholics has been used to replace bells between the Gloria of the Mass of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday and the Easter Vigil.[16]
Among Jewish people a ratchet is used to make noise by the congregation during the celebration of Purim. Sephardi Jews immigrating to Spanish imperial holdings in the Americas following their 1492 expulsion from Spain brought gragers for celebrating Purim, which could pass as the matracha of Catholic usage.[17] |
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| Tabor | Early drums in Europe were "side drums", slung at the players side or worn over their shoulder.[18] These were tabors, double sided with snares of rope (possibly only on one side.[18] The drums were either beaten with two sticks, or played as a pipe and tabor combination.[18] Drum and fife association found in Basle in 1332.Larger drums come on the scene by the 1500s.[18]
A three-hole pipe or reed pipe paired with a snare drum, the musician playing both at once. A variation of this is the Tambourine de Bearn, in which a dulcimer or string drum replaces the snare drum. |
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| Tambourine de Bearn
String drum Ttun-ttun |
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| Tof | Tof was the Hebrew instrument which Miriam played, "most commonly translated" into English as timbrel[20] Near eastern origin, used by Gauls, Greeks, Romans (tympanum), Egyptians, Assyrians.[21] Jingles were probably originally separate from this instrument.[21] Also related to Daff.[21]
A type of rattle, called a "frame wrattle" in which the rattles (or jingles) strike the object to which they are attached. |
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| Triangle |  |
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String instruments
[edit]| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions |
Pictures | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Citole[22][23] |  | |||
| Clavichord | Clavichords were in existence in the "early years of the 15th century."[24] Word clavichord found in text from 1404.[24] Earliest known image dates to 1425, in an altarpiece carving in Minden, Germany.[24] | ,_Coburg_State_Library,_Ms_Cas_43.jpg) |
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| Crwth
Rote Stråkharpa |
British Isles, from where it traveled through the Shetland Islands and Norway to Sweden, ending up in Estonia and Finland. |    |
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| Dulcimer | A box zither; see psaltery.
"Little is known of the dulcimer before the mid-15th century."[25] Earliest known depiction is on ivory carving for book cover, 12th century A.D.[25][26] |
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| Fiddle see also |  |
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| Gittern[23] |  | |||
| Guitarra latina | One writer has summed up the guitarra latina, which is not well defined, saying "For musicians in Alfonso’s time it may have meant only 'a plucked stringed instrument: not the Muslim one.'"[27] |  |
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| Guitarra morisca[28] |
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Medieval harp (Medieval form of the modern harp)
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Not counting the ancient Greek harps, earliest depictions of harps in Europe include examples in Scotland (the Nigg Stone, late 8th century) and Ireland (early images in stone carvings appear to show oblong, c-shaped and triangular harps or lyres.[29]). Other early works can be seen from France, such as the ivory cover to the Dagulf Psalter in France and the 9th century illustrations in the Utrecht Psalter. Harps were strung throughout Europe with gut strings. Exceptions include Ireland (where strings were of metal) and Wales (where portable harps used horsehair strings through the 17th century A.D.).[30] For comparison of harps from across the ancient and medieval world, look at angular harps, arched harps, and konghou. |
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| Lute[32] |  |
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| Lyra | Fiddle, related to rebec |  |
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| Lyre |   |
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| Monochord | The monochord was a theoretical instrument illustrated in religious miniatures. A single string zither, which could produce different notes by pressure and plucking. | .jpg) |
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| Organistrum (large form of medieval hurdy-gurdy) |   |
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| Psaltery |   |
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| Rabel | Fiddle, probably variation of rebec. Survives today in Basque speaking areas; historically had leather soundboard; modern instruments may have wooden soundboard. The instrument traveled to the Spanish colonies in America, where it can be found today in Panama. | ,_folio_21V.jpg)    |
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| Rebab
Rabé morisco |
Rebab is a word for various kinds of fiddle in the Muslim world. Spelling is loose, because Arabic does not write down vowels sounds. Rabab, rebab, rubab, ribab have all been used, and some of them are used for plucked instruments in Asia as well. |   |
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| Rebec[34] |   |
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| Rotte |  |
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| Tromba marina
Trumpet marine |
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| Vielle
Vièle |
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| Vihuela
Viola |
In the Iberian Peninsula, small lutes are pictured, which have been considered as possible cytharas and citoles. In Portugal, the tradition remained into the modern era, the instruments called violas. They were vihuelas in Spain. Vihuela eventually became a large guitar-like instrument of the Renaissance. Violas remained small. The name viola has been reused for a variety of instruments including viola da gamba, viola (a modern fiddle). |   |
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| Vihuela de arco
Viola de arco Vihuela de arco pequeña (small bowed vihuela) |
The vihuela de arco may be a variant of the vielle. Spain had a variety of fiddles (which predate the violin) in the cathedral artwork and manuscript miniatures. |  |
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| Zither | ||||
Wind instruments
[edit]| Names and variations | Description | Ethnic connections, regions | Pictures | Pictures |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Albogón[37] | Double-reed instrument or type of shawm, possibly adapted from Muslim al-buq horn.[38] |  | ||
| Alboka
Pinole |
Traditional instruments of shepherds. Reedpipes in which the reed body has been replaced by another material such as wood or bone. The single reed (once part of the body of the reedpipe) is now separated; it is now inserted into the instrument's body. The other end of the reed is inserted into the musicians mouth and blown through to produce sound. Hornpipes have a protective cup over the reed, to blow into. Crumhorns also use this protected reed system, though with double reeds.
See also shephard's horn (below) |
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| Bagpipes[39] |  |
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| Bladder pipe |  |
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| Bombard | Bagpipe of Brittany | |||
| Buisine
Anafil |
Europeans used horns for trumpets until adapting the Muslim nafir. It was renamed the anafil in Spain and the buisine in France. Europeans developed the instrument further into the herald trumpet or clarion near the end of the medieval period. |  |
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| Clarion | Clarion today implies high, angelic, pealing notes. That sound was developed, however, as Europeans began to learn to shape and bend sheet-metal tubes. Earlier Europeans showed angels playing horns. Cornett would also come to hit clarion notes. |  |
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| Cornett
Fingerhole trumpets |
In the 1500s-1600s, cornetts were carved wooden fingerhole trumpets, played from the corner of the mouth. In the medieval period, wooden fingerhole trumpets (and fingerhole cowhorns) are indicated in art such as the Winchcombe Psalter. |  |
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| Crumhorn | Probably a Renaissance instrument, the sound mechanism is a bundle of reeds beneath the wooden cap. The musician blew through the cap. |  |
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| Flageolet | ||||
| Flute |  | |||
| Gemshorn | A recorder made from horn.[40] Common to use ox horn after 1375 A.D.[40] Originally made from chamois horn.[40] In later music, the instrument made of ox horn fills the gap between the flageolet and the recorder.[40] | German
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| Horn
Bockhorn or Bukkehorn Hunting horn Battle horn War horn |
Trumpets made from cattle horns (or from other materials and shaped like cattle horns) and other animal horns such as goats (bukkehorn) or sheep (shofar). Carved ivory horns of this style were called oliphants. Words in English: cowhorn, bullhorn, oxhorn, steerhorn. Among peaceful uses of these horns was for farmers to call to their cattle herds to bring them in.[41] Could be drilled with as many as three or four fingerholes.[41] Bockhorns have been found with fingerholes as far back as the Iron Age.[41] | Norway/Sweden |     |
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| Olifant | Hunting or war horns carved from ivory | _Ivory_with_silver_mounts_Carved_about_1000-1100_CE_in_southern_Italy_Possbily_Amalfi_(1350430173).jpg) | ||
| Medieval trumpet
Iberian trumpet |
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| Organ | Organs invented in antiquity, but not common in Europe.[43] Under reigns of Pepin the short and Charlemagne, the organ was re-introduced to Europe, starting in about 757 A.D.[43]
Theophilus's organ in the 11th century A.D., used bellows activated by body weight.[44] That was refined to make all air from three bellows enter into a common channel.[44] Smaller organs are illustrated that are now called portative organs and positive organs. |
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| Portative Organ |  |
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| Positive organ | A tabletop pipe organ | _L%27Ou%C3%AFe_(La_Dame_%C3%A0_la_licorne)_-_Mus%C3%A9e_de_Cluny_Paris_cropped_for_musicians.jpg) |
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| Panpipes
Panflute |
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| Recorder
duct flute |
Recorders are fairly rare in medieval art, the pipe (for pipe and tabor) being more common. Possibly began main start in European music in Northern Italy in the 14th century, and was established at the beginning of the 16th century.[45] It is difficult to tell from art if a recorder is presented (with a thumb hole) or a "some kind of folk pipe (without the thumb hole)."[45]
In comparison, reed pipes had a very limited range of notes (having only 3-4 holes and being played with one hand). Recorders and pipes with the holes requiring two hands to play had a broader range of notes. Another detail difficult to see is the mechanism of sound; recorders are flutes in which the sound is produced by a fipple.[45] Reed pipes such as aulos used reed bundles like a shawm to produce notes, or single reeds like the zummara.[45] Three and four hole pipes have been excavated in Novgorod, dating to the 11th and 15th centuries A.D. The timeline is not clear for the development into flutes with more holes. It isn't certain whether pipes with 3-4 holes were played alone, with a timbrel or tabor, or in pairs. Double flutes in Eastern Europe date back to the 12th-13th centuries.[46] Used in Russia, Belarus, western Ukraine, Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia.[46] |
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| Reed pipes | See also alboka, in above in this table.
Europeans made pipes out of reeds, splitting a reed to make a single reed. A single 3-hole reed pipe could be used for the pipe and tabor. The Launeddas was a more elaborate reed pipe, with multiple pipes; each might have its own reed or one reed might sound multiple pipes. These are more common in medieval art than the recorder (which has more holes and requires both hands to play). Reed pipe traditions around the world include Asia, Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa. |
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| Sackbut[47] | Renaissance instrument, ancestor of the trombone. Medieval variant was clarion or slide trumpet. |  | ||
| Shawm[48]
oboe |
Double-reed instruments. The reed bundle is inserted through a disk (used for breath control, for uninterrupted sound, playing while the musician breathes.)
In France, musettes were small oboes until the 16th century, when they became bagpipes.[49] The musette was a small keyless double-reed chalumeau, with a visibly conical bore and a pear-shaped bell. |
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| Willow flute
Telenka (Ukrainian Тилинка) telincă (Romanian) |
These instruments are commonly called willow whistles because they use the bark of a willow tree (the tube created when the center is pulled from inside the bark) to make a whistle. The Russian kalyuka also makes a tube for a whistle, often out of thistle. The two instruments are played the same way, by varying the force of the air blown into the mouthpiece, with the end of the tube being covered by the finger or left open. | Norway
Sweden Finland Lithuania Russia Ukraine |
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| Shepherd's horn[50]
Pastusheskiy rog (Пастушеский рог) |
Horns constructed of strips of birchbark or alder bark rolled into tubes, or into cups to fit onto the end of flutes or reedpipes. Also fingerhole horn carved of wood. A mouthpiece is inserted; they may have reed tongues (making them reed horns, shawms or obes) a trumpet mouthpiece, or a tip to make them into flutes. Holes may be cut into the bark tube as well.[51][52][50] Instruments may also be built with a mouthpiece resembling a cup or funnel, in which the player uses his lips to create the sound.[53] | Sweden, Russia, Karelia, Belarus, Ukraine, former Yugoslavia |    |
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| Clay trumpet | Horns of clay |  | ||
| Tabor Pipe | A two or three-hole pipe of wood or reed, played with the tabor; the combination is called pipe and tabor. Three-hole flutes have two front finger holes and one back thumb hole. |  |
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| Wooden trumpet
Bemastocc |
A yew-wood trumpet was found in the Erne River.[54] It was attributed to the "early Christian Period...8th-10th century."[54] Has resemblance to the trumpets in the Vespasian Psalter.[55]
Trumpet was carved in two halves and bound together with strips of bronze, with a bronze mouthpiece.[54][55] |
Bemastocc (Old-English bem trumpet + stocc wood) |    |
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Groups of musicians
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1172-1174 A.D., Germany. Musicians from The Book of Divine Works by Hildegard of Bingen. From left: harp, flute or recorder, unknown, vielle, panpipes, portative organ. -
1417 A.D., Czechoslovakia. David (sitting) surrounded by musicians or troubadours in a picture from the Olomouc Bible. -
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King David playing a rotte (psaltery), with other musicians on fiddle, bell, bagpipe and horn, from the Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone. -
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References
[edit]- ^ Gutwirth, Eleazar (1998). "Music, Identity and the Inquisition in Fifteenth-Century Spain". Early Music History. 17: 161–181. doi:10.1017/S0261127900001637. ISSN 0261-1279. JSTOR 853882.
- ^ Mauricio Molina (2006). Frame Drums in the Medieval Iberian Peninsula. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-542-85095-0. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ^ a b Schechter, John M. (1984). "Adulfe". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. p. 25.
- ^ Sienna, Noam (4 December 2018). "March to Your Own Drummer: The History of Hennaed Drums (Part One)".
- ^ a b c d e Price, Percival (1984). "Bell: 5 Bellfounding". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. p. 214.
- ^ a b c d Price, Percival (1984). "Chimes". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. pp. 351–352.
- ^ a b Butler, Bevin. "Silencing the Bells: A Statement of Power in Medieval Spain". medievalists.net.
The Eagle Feather, Vol.7 (2010)...the bells of the cathedral at Santiago de Compostela that were stolen by Muslim armies in 997 A.D. and taken to Cordova as spoils of war...More than 200 years later they were recaptured by Christian armies... To the Muslims, the bells were symbols of their oppression by Christians because the bells were rung to cover the call of the faithful to prayers by the Muezzins...[to] Christian community...the bells were used to regulate village life by alerting the people to the proper times to wake, to pray, and to sleep as well as informing them of deaths in their community.
- ^ "Refectory Bell". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
- ^ Linda Schaitberger. "THE BELL-FOUNDER OF BRESLAU". revisionist.net/.
on May 17, 1945, an explosion destroyed the south tower. Part of the church collapsed and demolished the bridge connecting the towers, the gable end and the main portal (west) with its valuable sculptures as well as the vaults and the famous 'Bell of the Sinners', cast in 1386. It was probably the largest bell in Silesia with a circumference of 6.30 meters and an inner height of 1.80 meters, and was rung on holidays and the Lord's Prayer.
- ^ Ad Dardanum, de diversis generibus musicorum instrumentorum.
- ^ Trede, Juliane. "Image 109 of Saint Jerome's "Instruments of Hieronymus" and other Music Manuscripts". Library of Congress.
- ^ Sebastian Virdung (1993). Musica Getutscht - A Treatise on Musical Instruments (1511) by Sebastian Virdung. Cambridge University Press. p. 116,117,118. ISBN 978-0-521-30830-4.
[note, Virdung first published Musica Getutscht in Basel in 1511.]
- ^ The Jew's harp : a comprehensive anthology. Leonard Fox. Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. 1988. ISBN 0-8387-5116-4. OCLC 16356799.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Marcuse, Sibyl (1975). A Survey of Musical Instruments. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 80–91.
- ^ Marcuse, Sibyl (1966). "Rattle". Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world. London: Country Life Limited. p. 435f.
- ^ "Rätsch II". Schweizerisches Idiotikon digital. Schweizerisches Idiotikon. Vol. 6. p. 117.
- ^ Tenorio, Rich (16 August 2016). "When the Spanish Inquisition expanded to the New World". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d Blades, James (1984). "Drum, 3: Side". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. pp. 607–609.
- ^ "TIMBREL - JewishEncyclopedia.com". Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
- ^ Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). "Timbrel". The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 3. p. 585.
- ^ a b c Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). "Tambourine". The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 3. p. 511.
- ^ "Citole". British Museum.
- ^ a b Baker, Paul. "The Gittern and Citole". Retrieved 4 December 2016.
- ^ a b c Ripin, Edwin M. (1984). "Clavichord". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. pp. 415–417.
- ^ a b Kettlewell, David (1984). "Dulcimer". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. p. 627.
- ^ "A marvel in gold and ivory: Queen Melisende's Psalter". 26 May 2022.
[Caption for photograph of the book cover. The dulcimer is in bottom right corner of book-cover carving] The Melisende Psalter, Upper cover with scenes from the life of David: Egerton MS 1139/1
- ^ Bouterse, Curt. "Medieval Instruments V: Fiddles – Curt Bouterse".
- ^ Galpin, Francis William (1911). Old English Instruments of Music. Chicago: A. C. McClurg and Company. pp. 21–22.
- ^ Chadwick, Simon. "Early medieval depictions of harpers on stone, manuscript and metal".
- ^ Sally Harper (2022). "Chapter 4 - Secular Music before 1650". In Trevor Herbert; Martin V. Clarke; Helen Barlow (eds.). A History of Welsh Music. Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–99. doi:10.1017/9781009036511.007. ISBN 9781009036511.
A self-accompanying poet like Dafydd ap Gwilym would have used a small, portable harp, perhaps a form of the telyn raun (or rawn)...This horsehair-strung instrument remained prevalent in the Welsh bardic context until at least the seventeenth century...Other types of harp were nevertheless known in Wales, including the metal-strung harp used by the Irish...Gut strings were the norm elsewhere in Europe and England, but apparently despised in Wales, at least by some...
- ^ Lavoix, Henri Marie (1884). Histoire de la musique. p. 89.
Harpe des Bardes Gallois
- ^ "A Panoply of Instruments for Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque Music". Music Educators Journal. 65 (9): 38–69. 1979. doi:10.2307/3395616. ISSN 0027-4321. JSTOR 3395616.
- ^ Brown, Howard Mayer (1984). "Symphonia". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 3. p. 483.
- ^ Spohnheimer. "The Rebec". Music.iastate.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
- ^ "Título uniforme [In Apocalipsin] Title Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim". bdh.bne.es. BIBLIOTECA DIGITAL HISPÁNICA. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
- ^ "Título uniforme [In Apocalipsin] Title Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim". bdh.bne.es. Biblioteca Digital Hispánica. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
- ^ a b Centre Int. de la Música Medieval (11 February 2023). "ALBOGÓN. Ms. b.I.2. fol. 268v. RBME. Cantiga de Santa María 388". youtube.com.
[note: video of a modern recreation of the Albogón
- ^ a b Bouterse, Curt. "Medieval Instruments VI: Winds".
Another unusual instrument depicted in the Cantigas is the albogón. This was derived from the Arabic al-buq, originally a generic word for horns and trumpets, but latterly restricted to horns. Supposedly, in the 10th century, during the reign of the Spanish Umayyad caliph, al-Hakam II, a horn was fitted with a double reed and fingerholes...Cantiga 300 shows a huge one being played, accompanied by an hourglass-shaped drum.
- ^ Jones, G. Fenwick (1949). "Wittenwiler's "Becki" and the Medieval Bagpipe". The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 48 (2): 209–228. ISSN 0363-6941. JSTOR 27713052.
- ^ a b c d FitzPatrick, Horace (1984). "Gemshorn". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 2. p. 33.
- ^ a b c d e f Kjellström, Birgit (1984). "Bockhorn". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 1. p. 242.
- ^ Bouterse, Curt. "Medieval Instruments VI: Winds".
- ^ a b von Katzenelnbogen, Johann (23 April 2017). "The Utrecht Psalter and its Furnishings - Part IV".
According to The Organ; An Encyclopedia, the organ was "re-introduced" into Western Europe from Byzantium in the time of Pepin the Short, (in 757 AD) and Charlemagne. While these two incidents are recorded and thus textual evidence for actual events, the fact that they are illustrated in the Utrecht Psalter and the Stuttgart Psalter testify to them being fairly commonplace at the beginning of the 9th century.
- ^ a b Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). "Organ: Construction, 2: Medieval Chest and 3: Medieval bellows". The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 2. pp. 839–840.
- ^ a b c d Hunt, Edgar (1984). "Recorder: History". In Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Vol. 3. pp. 205–208.
- ^ a b "Flute". Музыкальная энциклопедия. Том 4. — М (Musical Encyclopedia. Volume 4. - M.): Советская энциклопедия (Soviet Encyclopedia). 1978. pp. 884–976.
- ^ Spohnheimer. "The Sacbut". Music.iastate.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-05-04. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
- ^ Spohnheimer. "The Renaissance Shawm". Music.iastate.edu. Archived from the original on 2016-05-25. Retrieved 2016-05-13.
- ^ Letourmy, Georgina (2000). Le 11e arrondissement. Itinéraires d'histoire et d'architecture, Action Artistique Ville Paris, coll. " Paris en 80 quartiers ". FeniXX réédition numérique. ISBN 9782402071420.
- ^ a b c d e Antykova N.I. "Исторические аспекты развития народных инструментов в Оренбургской области" [Historical aspects of the development of folk instruments in the Orenburg region]. Greyish.ru (in Russian).
...settlers from the Tver region brought a horn (a shepherd's instrument)...belongs to reed aerophones, the sound in which occurs from the vibration of...an oscillating reed. The material for the horn is exclusively alder. The pipe is made from an alder shoot, about a finger thick (12-14 mm).
[source cited at end of article:] The Fifth Lazarev Readings: "Faces of Traditional Culture": Proc. of the International Scientific Conf. Chelyabinsk, February 25–26, 2011: in 2 parts / Chelyabinsk State Academy of Culture and Arts; ed. by prof. N. G. Apukhtin. – Chelyabinsk, 2011. – Part II. – 350 p.] - ^ Финченко А. Е. (Finchenko A. E.) (1982). "Восточнославянские народные музыкальные инструменты в собрании МАЭ" [East Slavic Folk Musical Instruments in the MAE Collection Archive] (PDF). Памятники культуры народов Европы и европейской части СССР (Cultural Monuments of the Peoples of Europe and the European Part of the USSR) (in Russian). 38. Ленинград (Leningrad): Наука (Nauka): 86, 89. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2021.
{{cite journal}}: External link in|journal= - ^ "Рог пастушеский. Русские. Россия, Архангельская область (Архангельская губ.). Конец XIX - начало XX вв" [Shepherd's horn. Russians. Russia, Arkhangelsk region (Arkhangelsk province). Late 19th - early 20th centuries.] (in Russian).
[museum exhibit information for birchbark trumpet:] Museum room MAE No. 1877-5
Name, title Shepherd's horn
Ethnicity Russians
Place of creation Russia, Arkhangelsk region (Arkhangelsk province)
Geographic localization of the place of creation East Europe
Time of creation Late 19th - early 20th centuries
Collector - private individual Zhuravsky Andrey Vladimirovich
Material birch bark, wood, fabric
Size Overall length - 17.5; circumference length at the bell - 32.0; bell diameter - 10.0; mouthpiece diameter - 9.0; circumference length at the mouthpiece - 3.5 - ^ "Пастушеский рожок" [Shepherd's Horn]. spacenation.info (in Russian). Archived from [spacenation.info/pastusheskii.html the original] on 16 March 2016.
[Talking about the lip-activated trumpet:] instead of a squeaker or whistle, this instrument has a mouthpiece that resembles a cup or funnel, and the sound is produced by contact with the lips, folded in a special way. The instruments differ in the length of the barrel and the number of holes (from three to six). The sound resembles a human voice.
{{cite web}}: Check|url=value (help) - ^ a b c Waterman, D. M. (1969). "An Early Medieval Horn from the River Erne". Ulster Jouirnial of Archaeology. 32: 101–104. JSTOR 20567644.
- ^ a b Purse, John (2002). "Reconstructing the River Erne Horn". Ulster Journal of Archaeology. 61: 17–25. JSTOR 20568294.
