Book of Jeremiah

Wine-jar seal (early centuries AD) quoting Jer 38:11 (שאנן מואב מנעוריו ושקט הוא אל־שמריו ולא־הורק מכלי אל־כלי ובגולה לא הלך על־כן עמד טעמו בו וריחו לא נמר ס‎; "Moab has been at rest from youth, like wine left on its dregs, not poured from one jar to another— she has not gone into exile. So she tastes as she did, and her aroma is unchanged."

The Book of Jeremiah (Hebrew: ספר יִרְמְיָהוּ) is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, and the second of the Prophets in the Christian Old Testament. The superscription at chapter Jeremiah 1:1–3 identifies the book as "the words of Jeremiah son of Hilkiah". Of all the prophets, Jeremiah comes through most clearly as a person, ruminating to his scribe Baruch about his role as a servant of God with little good news for his audience.

His book is intended as a message to the Jews in exile in Babylon, explaining the disaster of exile as God's response to Israel's pagan worship: the people, says Jeremiah, are like an unfaithful wife and rebellious children, their infidelity and rebelliousness made judgment inevitable, although restoration and a new covenant are foreshadowed. Authentic oracles of Jeremiah are probably to be found in the poetic sections of chapters 1 through 25, but the book as a whole has been heavily edited and added to by the prophet's followers (including, perhaps, his companion, the scribe Baruch) and later generations of Deuteronomists.

It has come down in two distinct though related versions, one in Hebrew, the other known from the Septuagint Greek translation. The dates of the two (Greek and Hebrew) can be suggested by the fact that the Greek shows concerns typical of the early Persian period, while the Masoretic (i.e., Hebrew) shows perspectives which, although known in the Persian period, did not reach their realisation until the 2nd century BCE.

Structure

(Taken from Michael D. Coogan's A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament; other sources will give slightly different divisions)

It is difficult to discern any structure in Jeremiah, probably because the book had such a long and complex composition history. It can be divided into roughly six sections:

• Chapters 1–25 (The earliest and main core of Jeremiah's message)
• Chapters 26–29 (Biographic material and interaction with other prophets)
• Chapters 30–33 (God's promise of restoration including Jeremiah's "new covenant" which is interpreted differently in Judaism than it is in Christianity)
• Chapters 34–45 (Mostly interaction with Zedekiah and the fall of Jerusalem)
• Chapters 46–51 (Divine punishment to the nations surrounding Israel)
• Chapter 52 (Appendix that retells 2 Kings)

Summary

Rembrandt van Rijn, Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem (c. 1630)

Historical background

The background to Jeremiah is briefly described in the superscription to the book: Jeremiah began his prophetic mission in the thirteenth year of king Josiah (about 627 BC) and continued after the eleventh year of king Zedekiah (586 BC), "when Jerusalem went into exile in the sixth month". During this period, Josiah instituted religious reforms, Babylon destroyed Assyria, Egypt briefly imposed vassal status on Judah, Babylon defeated Egypt and made Judah a Babylonian vassal (605 BC), Judah revolted but was subjugated again by Babylon (597 BC), and Judah revolted once more.

This revolt was the final one: Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and its Temple and exiled its king and many of the leading citizens in 586 BC, ending Judah's existence as an independent or quasi-independent kingdom and inaugurating the Babylonian exile.

Overview

The book can be conveniently divided into biographical, prose and poetic strands, each of which can be summarised separately. The biographical material is to be found in chapters 26–29, 32, and 34–44, and focuses on the events leading up to and surrounding the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in 587 BCE; it provides precise dates for the prophet's activities beginning in 609 BCE. The non-biographical prose passages, such as the Temple sermon in chapter 7 and the covenant passage in 11:1–17, are scattered throughout the book; they show clear affinities with the Deuteronomists, the school of writers and editors who shaped the series of history books from Judges to Kings, and while it is unlikely they come directly from Jeremiah, they may well have their roots in traditions about what he said and did.

The poetic material is found largely in chapters 1–25 and consists of oracles in which the prophet speaks as God's messenger. These passages, dealing with Israel's unfaithfulness to God, the call to repentance, and attacks on the religious and political establishment, are mostly undated and have no clear context, but it is widely accepted that they represent the teachings of Jeremiah and are the earliest stage of the book. Allied to them, and also probably a reflection of the authentic Jeremiah, are further poetic passages of a more personal nature, which have been called Jeremiah's confessions or spiritual diary. In these poems the prophet agonises over the apparent failure of his mission, is consumed by bitterness at those who oppose or ignore him, and accuses God of betraying him.

Synosys

Jeremiah: Covenant of Peace and the Challenges of Prophethood: Jeremiah is notably the longest book in the Bible by word count and is distinguished by its deep engagement with God's word. It begins with the declaration "God is watching over His word to perform it," emphasizing the theme of divine fidelity. Notably, about 40% of the occurrences of the phrase "thus says the LORD" within the entire Bible are found in Jeremiah, highlighting its focus on divine communication .

Jeremiah's Metaphor of Forsaking God the real fountain for useless broken cisterns: In one of his most poignant metaphors, Jeremiah accuses the people of Judah of committing two evils: "They have forsaken me, the spring of living water, and have dug their own cisterns, broken cisterns that cannot hold water" (Jeremiah 2:13). This metaphor vividly illustrates their abandonment of God—the source of life and sustenance—in favor of reliance on their flawed and ineffective solutions. It highlights the futility and foolishness of turning away from divine guidance, reflecting a central theme in Jeremiah’s warnings about the consequences of Israel's infidelity and moral decline.

The nature of man and Jeremiah's anthropology: In the Book of Jeremiah, God instructs the prophet to search Jerusalem for an honest person to forgive the city's sins (Jeremiah 5:1). This search underscores the profound moral decay within Jerusalem and highlights God's willingness to extend mercy for even a single righteous individual. Conversely, Diogenes of Sinope, a Greek Cynic philosopher, famously searched for an honest man with a lantern during the day, symbolizing his critique of the moral corruption in Greek society. Diogenes never intended to find one, using his search as a dramatic demonstration of his belief in the rarity of genuine virtue. Jeremiah: The unsuccessful search leads to judgment, reflecting the severe moral failures of the people. Diogenes: The lantern in daylight mocks the elusive nature of virtue in society, portraying a darker view of human character. Both figures use the motif of searching for honesty to highlight the ethical deficiencies of their respective societies. Jeremiah’s quest within a prophetic and religious framework seeks redemption, while Diogenes' approach is a cynical commentary on the absence of genuine virtue.

Given this widespread moral lapse, Jeremiah 9:23-24 offers guidance on the proper source of human boasting, shifting focus from human strength and wisdom to a relationship with God: "This is what the LORD says: 'Let not the wise boast of their wisdom or the strong boast of their strength or the rich boast of their riches, but let the one who boasts boast about this: that they understand and know me, that I am the LORD, who exercises kindness, justice and righteousness on earth, for in these I delight,' declares the LORD." This passage underscores a key theme in Jeremiah’s preaching—true wisdom lies in knowing and understanding the character of God and aligning one’s life with His values.

The Heart's Deceit and True Wisdom: Jeremiah 17:9 reveals the prophet's profound understanding of human nature: "The heart is deceitful above all things and beyond cure. Who can understand it?" This verse encapsulates the biblical view of the human heart’s propensity towards deceit, emphasizing the need for divine intervention to discern and rectify the human spirit.

Parable of the Good and Bad Figs: Jeremiah 24 introduces the parable of the good and bad figs, a symbolic vision that contrasts the destinies of the exiles from Judah and those who remained in Jerusalem. In this vision, the good figs represent the Judeans carried away to Babylon, whom God promises to look after and eventually bring back to their land, signifying hope and restoration. Conversely, the bad figs symbolize those who remained in Jerusalem and nearby, who face destruction and disaster due to their disobedience: "The good figs represent the exiles I sent away from Judah to the land of the Babylonians. I will look on them with favor and bring them back to this land; I will build them up and not tear them down; I will plant them and not uproot them." "The bad figs, so bad they cannot be eaten, are like Zedekiah king of Judah and his officials. I will give them over to destruction and calamity, to be terrorized by all the kingdoms of the earth."

Rejection, Sorrow, and Suffering of Jeremiah: Jeremiah, known as the "weeping prophet," faced profound sorrow and rejection throughout his ministry. He articulates the personal cost of his prophetic role in Jeremiah 20:7–9, where he speaks of the pain and insult brought on by his messages: "Whenever I speak, I cry out proclaiming violence and destruction. So the word of the Lord has brought me insult and reproach all day long." His experiences parallel the suffering of the Servant in Isaiah 53, with both figures representing aspects of God's redemptive plan through their trials.

Jeremiah's Echo in the New Testament: Jeremiah's prophecies and his personal plight resonate within the New Testament. Matthew 2:17-18 references his prophecy from Jeremiah 31:15 when recounting Herod's massacre of the infants in Bethlehem, portraying Jeremiah's words as being fulfilled in this tragic event . Additionally, Jeremiah's mention of a potter's field and the price of betrayal, themes echoed in Matthew 27:9-10, though commonly attributed to Zechariah, show the thematic continuity and fulfillment of prophetic imagery in the life and mission of Jesus .

Covenant of Peace and Hope Amid Exile: Despite its frequent themes of judgment and sorrow, Jeremiah also contains profound promises of restoration and hope. The "Covenant of Peace" in Jeremiah 32 is a prime example, where God assures His people that their exile is not the end of their story but a preparation for a renewed relationship with Him: "I will surely gather them from all the lands where I banish them in my furious anger and great wrath; I will bring them back to this place and let them live in safety." This covenant echoes the themes of the New Covenant described in Jeremiah 31:31–34, where God promises to inscribe His law on their hearts. It is strongly repeated in Jeremiah 32:40 where "I will make an everlasting covenant and will never turn from doing you good. I will put my Spirit in you and you will never turn from following Me." This promise of a transformative New Covenant is later cited in the New Testament, specifically in Hebrews 8:8-12 and 10:16-17, as being fulfilled through Jesus Christ, emphasizing a deeper, personal relationship with God .The only explicit Old Testament reference to a "new covenant" is found in the Book of Jeremiah. Specifically, it is mentioned in Jeremiah 31:31-34, where the prophet outlines God's promise of a new covenant

Political Intrigue and the Role of Prophets: Jeremiah’s confrontations with false prophets, such as those described in Jeremiah 23 and 28, showcase the challenges he faced from those who falsely assured peace and security, contrary to his warnings of doom .

Symbolic Acts and Prophetic Messages: Jeremiah's use of symbolic acts, such as breaking a pottery jar to symbolize Judah's forthcoming destruction in Jeremiah 19, or wearing a yoke to represent submission to Babylonian rule in Jeremiah 27, are powerful, visual demonstrations of his prophecies .

Literary Diversity and False Hope: The book of Jeremiah showcases a diverse mix of prose, poetry, narrative, and prophecy, reflecting the prophet's experiences in various settings such as his calling, imprisonment, and times both before and after the fall of Jerusalem. This diversity also addresses themes of false hope, particularly through the repeated and misguided belief in the temple's protective power, contrasting with genuine promises of restoration after exile and the enduring Covenant of Peace, similar to the one in Isaiah 54.

Key Figures: Baruch and Ebed-Melek: Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe, played a crucial role in preserving and communicating Jeremiah's prophetic messages. His dedication is highlighted in Jeremiah 36, where he transcribes and reads Jeremiah's prophecies in the temple, despite significant risk . Ebed-Melek, an Ethiopian eunuch in King Zedekiah's court, is another notable figure who demonstrates remarkable courage. He rescues Jeremiah from a cistern, saving him from certain death, an act for which God promises him personal safety during Jerusalem's fall .

Restoration and Regathering of Israel: Jeremiah not only foretells the imminent disaster but also prophesies the future restoration and regathering of Israel and Judah under a new Davidic ruler, echoing messianic expectations outlined in Jeremiah 23:5-6 and 33:15-16 .

The Fall of Jerusalem: Detailed accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, such as in Jeremiah 52, provide a narrative closure to his prophecies, illustrating the fulfillment of warnings he had long proclaimed .

The narrative of Jeremiah weaves together themes of divine promise, personal suffering, and prophetic duty, culminating in a complex portrait of one of the Bible's most pivotal figures, whose messages of doom and hope remain profoundly relevant.

Composition

A high-resolution scan of the Aleppo Codex containing the Book of Jeremiah (the sixth book in Nevi'im)

Texts and manuscripts

Jeremiah exists in two versions: a Greek translation, called the Septuagint, dating from the last few centuries BCE and found in the earliest Christian manuscripts, and the Masoretic Hebrew text of traditional Jewish bibles. The Greek version is shorter than the Hebrew by about one eighth, and arranges the material differently. Equivalents of both versions were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, so it is clear that the differences mark important stages in the transmission of the text.

Most scholars hold that the Hebrew text underlying the Septuagint version is older than the Masoretic text, and that the Masoretic evolved either from this or from a closely related version. The shorter version ultimately became canonical in Greek Orthodox churches, while the longer was adopted in Judaism and in Western Christian churches.

Composition history

It is generally agreed that the three types of material interspersed through the book – poetic, narrative, and biographical – come from different sources or circles. Authentic oracles of Jeremiah are probably to be found in the poetic sections of chapters 1–25, but the book as a whole has been heavily edited and added to by followers (including perhaps the prophet's companion, the scribe Baruch) and later generations of Deuteronomists. The date of the final versions of the book (Greek and Hebrew) can be suggested by the fact that the Greek shows concerns typical of the early Persian period, while the Masoretic (i.e., Hebrew) shows perspectives which, although known in the Persian period, did not reach their realisation until the 2nd century BCE.

Literary development

The Book of Jeremiah grew over a long period of time. The Greek stage, looking forward to the fall of Babylon and aligning in places with Second Isaiah, had already seen major redaction (editing) in terms of overall structure, the superscriptions (sentences identifying following passages as the words of God or of Jeremiah), the assignment of historical settings, and arrangement of material, and may have been completed by the late Exilic period (last half of the 6th century BCE); the initial stages of the Masoretic Hebrew version may have been written not long afterwards, although chapter 33:14–26 points to a setting in post-exilic times.

Jeremiah

According to its opening verses the book records the prophetic utterances of the priest Jeremiah son of Hilkiah, "to whom the word of YHWH came in the days of king Josiah" and after. Jeremiah lived during a turbulent period, the final years of the kingdom of Judah, from the death of king Josiah (609 BCE) and the loss of independence that followed, through the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians and the exile of much its population (587/586). The book depicts a remarkably introspective prophet, impetuous and often angered by the role into which he has been thrust, alternating efforts to warn the people with pleas to God for mercy, until he is ordered to "pray no more for this people." He does a number of prophetic symbolic acts, walking about in the streets with a yoke about his neck and engaging in other efforts to attract attention. He is taunted and retaliates, is thrown in jail as the result, and at one point is thrown into a pit to die.

Jeremiah and the Deuteronomists

The Deuteronomists were a school or movement who edited the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings into a more or less unified history of Israel (the so-called Deuteronomistic History) during the Jewish exile in Babylon (6th century BCE). It is argued that the Deuteronomists played an important role in the production of the book of Jeremiah; for example, there is clear Deuteronomistic language in chapter 25, in which the prophet looks back over twenty-three years of unheeded prophecy. From the Deuteronomistic perspective the prophetic role implied, more than anything else, concern with law and covenant after the manner of Moses. On this reading Jeremiah was the last of a long line of prophets sent to warn Israel of the consequences of infidelity to God; unlike the Deuteronomists, for whom the call for repentance was always central, Jeremiah seems at some point in his career to have decided that further intercession was pointless, and that Israel's fate was sealed.

Jeremiah as a new Moses

The book's superscription claims that Jeremiah was active for forty years, from the thirteenth year of Josiah (627 BCE) to the fall of Jerusalem in 587. It is clear from the last chapters of the book, however, that he continued to speak in Egypt after the assassination of Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, in 582. This suggests that the superscription is trying to make a theological point about Jeremiah by comparing him to Moses – whereas Moses spent forty years leading Israel from slavery in Egypt to the Promised Land, Jeremiah's forty years saw Israel exiled from the land and Jeremiah himself ultimately in exile in Egypt.

Themes

Covenant

See also: Covenant (biblical)

Much of Jeremiah's prophetic preaching is based on the theme of the covenant between God and Israel (God would protect the people in return for their exclusive worship of him); Jeremiah insists that the covenant is conditional, and can be broken by Israel's apostasy (worship of gods other than Yahweh, the God of Israel). The people, says Jeremiah, are like an unfaithful wife and rebellious children: their infidelity and rebelliousness makes judgement inevitable. Interspersed with this are references to repentance and renewal, although it is unclear whether Jeremiah thought that repentance could ward off judgement or whether it would have to follow judgement. The theme of restoration is strongest in chapter 31:32, which looks to a future in which a New Covenant, made with Israel and Judah, will not be broken. This is the theme of the "New Covenant" passage at chapter 31:31–34, drawing on Israel's past relationship with God through the covenant at Sinai to foresee a new future in which Israel will be obedient to God.

The "Confessions" of Jeremiah

Scholars from Heinrich Ewald onwards have identified several passages in Jeremiah which can be understood as "confessions": they occur in the first section of the book (chapters 1–25) and are generally identified as Jeremiah 11:18–12.6, 15:10–21, 17:14–18, 18:18–23, and 20:7–18. In these five passages, Jeremiah expresses his discontent with the message he is to deliver, but also his steadfast commitment to the divine call despite the fact that he had not sought it out. Additionally, in several of these "confessions", Jeremiah prays that the Lord will take revenge on his persecutors (for example, Jeremiah 12:3).

Jeremiah's "confessions" are a type of individual lament. Such laments are found elsewhere in the psalms and the Book of Job. Like Job, Jeremiah curses the day of his birth (Jeremiah 20:14–18 and Job 3:3–10). Likewise, Jeremiah's exclamation "For I hear the whispering of many: Terror is all around!" matches Psalm 31:13 exactly. However, Jeremiah's laments are made unique by his insistence that he has been called by Yahweh to deliver his messages. These laments "provide a unique look at the prophet's inner struggle with faith, persecution, and human suffering".

Prophetic gestures

Prophetic gestures, also known as sign-acts or symbolic actions, were a form of communication in which a message was delivered by performing symbolic actions. Not unique to the book of Jeremiah, these were often bizarre and violated the cultural norms of the time. They served the purposes of both drawing an audience and causing that audience to ask questions, giving the prophet an opportunity to explain the meaning of the behavior. The recorder of the events in the written text (i.e. the author of the text) had neither the same audience nor, potentially, the same intent that Jeremiah had in performing these prophetic gestures.

The following is a list – not exhaustive – of noteworthy sign-acts found in Jeremiah:

• Jeremiah 13:1–11: The wearing, burial, and retrieval of a linen waistband.
• Jeremiah 16:1–9: The shunning of the expected customs of marriage, mourning, and general celebration.
• Jeremiah 19:1–13: the acquisition of a clay jug and the breaking of the jug in front of the religious leaders of Jerusalem.
• Jeremiah 27–28: The wearing of an oxen yoke and its subsequent breaking by a false prophet, Hananiah.
• Jeremiah 32:6–15: The purchase of a field in Anathoth for the price of seventeen silver shekels.
• Jeremiah 35:1–19: The offering of wine to the Rechabites, a tribe known for living in tents and refusing to drink wine.

Later interpretation and influence

The Call of Jeremiah is depicted in this 1860 woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld.

Judaism

Book of Jeremiah in Mongolian translation, 1840.

The influence of Jeremiah during and after the Exile was considerable in some circles, and three additional books, the Book of Baruch, Lamentations, and the Letter of Jeremiah, were attributed to him in Second Temple Judaism (Judaism in the period between the building of the Second Temple in about 515 BCE and its destruction in 70 CE); in the Greek Septuagint they stand between Jeremiah and the Book of Ezekiel, but only Lamentations is included in modern Jewish or Protestant bibles (the Letter of Jeremiah appears in Catholic bibles as the sixth chapter of Baruch). Jeremiah is mentioned by name in Chronicles and the Book of Ezra, both dating from the later Persian period, and his prophecy that the Babylonian exile would last 70 years was taken up and reapplied by the author of the Book of Daniel in the 2nd century BCE.

Christianity

The understanding of the early Christians that Jesus represented a "new covenant" is based on Jeremiah 31:31–34, in which a future Israel will repent and give God the obedience he demands. The Gospel's portrayal of Jesus as a persecuted prophet owes a great deal to the account of Jeremiah's sufferings in chapters 37–44, as well as to the "Songs of the Suffering Servant" in Isaiah.

See also

• Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet
• Jeremiad

Bibliography

• Allen, Leslie C. (2008). Jeremiah: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664222239.
• Arena, Francesco (September 2020). Lemche, Niels Peter (ed.). "False Prophets in the Book of Jeremiah: Did They All Prophesy and Speak Falsehood?". Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament. 34 (2). Taylor & Francis: 187–200. doi:10.1080/09018328.2020.1807104. ISSN 1502-7244. S2CID 221866227.
• Bandstra, Barry L. (2004). Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth. ISBN 9780495391050.
• Biddle, Mark E. (2007). "Jeremiah". In Coogan, Michael D.; Brettler, Mark Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.). The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books: New Revised Standard Version. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743919.
• Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1996). A history of prophecy in Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256395.
• Brettler, Marc Zvi (2010). How to read the Bible. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0775-0.
• Brueggemann, Walter (2002). Reverberations of faith: a theological handbook of Old Testament themes. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664222314.
• Coogan, Michael D. (2008). A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195332728.
• Davidson, Robert (1993). "Jeremiah, Book of". In Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (eds.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743919.
• Diamond, A. R. Pete (2003). "Jeremiah". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110.
• Friebel, Kelvin G. (1999). Jeremiah's and Ezekiel's Sign-Acts: Rhetorical Nonverbal Communication. Continuum. ISBN 9781850759195.
• Knight, Douglas A. (1995). "Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomists". In Mays, James Luther; Petersen, David L.; Richards, Harold (eds.). Old Testament Interpretation. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567292896.
• Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.
• Perdue, Leo G. (2006). "Jeremiah". In Attridge, Harold W. (ed.). HarperCollins Study Bible. HarperCollins.
• Redditt, Paul L. (2008). Introduction to the Prophets. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802828965.
• Sweeney, Marvin A. (2010). The Prophetic Literature. Abingdon Press. ISBN 9781426730030.
• Sweeney, Marvin A. (1998). "The Latter Prophets". In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham (ed.). The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664256524.
• Williamson, H. G. M. (2009). "Do We Need A New Bible? Reflections on the Proposed Oxford Hebrew Bible". Biblica. 90. Pontifical Biblical Institute: 168. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2012.

External links

• Hebrew text:
  • ירמיהו Yirmiyahu – Jeremiah (Hebrew)
• Translations into English
  • Jewish translations:
    • Jeremiah at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation)
  • Christian translations:
    • Online Bible at GospelHall.org
    • Jeremiah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version) (via Internet Archive)
  • Bible: Jeremiah public domain audiobook at LibriVox Various versions
• Wikisource texts
  • Book of Jeremiah (Hebrew)
  • Septuagint (Greek)
  • Vulgate (Latin)
  • Wycliffe / King James / American Standard / World English Bible (English)